BODY MODIFICATION IN PAST CULTURES

Aztec Empire
China
Easter Island
Egypt
Greece
Mayan Civilization
Mindanao (Philippines)
Persian Empire
Roman Empire

BODY MODIFICATION PRACTICES TODAY

AFRICA
Berber people
Lobi tribe
Makonde
Mursi tribe
Ndebele tribe
Sara Kaba tribe

ASIA
The Apatani tribe (India)
Hindustan (India)

AUSTRALIA
Australian Aboriginal people

NORTH AMERICA
The Arapaho, Cheyenne, Crow, Sioux, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibway, Sarasi, Omaha, Ponca, Ute, Shoshone, Kiowa, and Blackfoot tribes
Inuit, Yupik and Aleut tribes

SOUTH AMERICA
Aimorés or Botocudo
Huaorani Indians
Matis Indians
Matsés Indians
Rikbaktsa
The Suyá
Yanomami tribe

SOUTHEAST ASIA
Asmat tribe
Hmong people
Kayan People

WESTERN CULTURE
Western Culture

A PAST AND PRESENT COMPENDIUM OF BODY MODIFICATION

BODY MODIFICATION IN PAST CULTURES
In the ancient world, body modifications played an important role in many societies. Some of our ancestors practiced the same modifications that modern society is currently fascinated with. Body modifications were more common for religious purposes in the past but as always, fashion and sexuality also play a role. One noticeable difference between the culture of modern body piercing and the past is the practice of forced modifications. When slavery was widespread and socially acceptable, body modifications were commonly employed as techniques for control, punishment and identification.

Aztec Empire
The Aztec thrived from the early 14th century to the 16th. Their civilization dominated central Mexico and Tenochtitlan was the largest city in the Empire. Much of Aztec history was erased quite suddenly through Spanish conquest but history shows that religion played a vital role in daily lives.

The Aztecs, like other Mesoamerican cultures, used body modification for fashion. Facial piercing was common. Jade, gold and other precious materials were used to adorn the septum, nose, ears, lips and cheeks. One of the more curious and unexplained forms of body modification the Aztecs and other Mesoamerican cultures practiced was reshaping the teeth by filing them into T shapes. It is unknown if this was intended for fashion or religious purposes. Some Aztec hieroglyphics depict gods with T-shaped teeth.

The religious world and the social world were closely interwoven in Aztec society and many of these fashionable adornments also held a deeper significance. For example, the high ranking members of Aztec society wore labrets as status symbols. In Aztec graves and under buildings these labrets are sometimes found but they are always smashed. The reason is unknown but undoubtedly religious in nature.

Another style of body piercing was practiced only by Aztec priests and royalty. This style of piercing is quite different from our fashion motivated reasons because they were not intended to be permanent. The purpose was to obtain blood. Many facets of the Aztec religion were honored with blood from various parts of the body. Some ceremonies required the ruler to pierce his ears to hear the gods, pierce his tongue to communicate the language of the gods and pierce his penis to participate in the creation of the Aztec cosmos. The blood collected from these piercing rituals was burned. Some scholars believe this was a symbolic self sacrifice used to demonstrate to the people the importance of human sacrifice.

China
From the 10th century to the early 20th century, foot binding was practiced in China. This form of body modification was done for beauty. The desired size of bound feet was just over 3 inches. The fashion originated from palace life and was desirable in the belief that it attracted powerful men. Parents who could afford to start the process did so in hopes of the daughter having a better future. The process involved breaking the arch of the foot and wrapping them. It took over two years for the foot to grow and heal into its new shape. The desired shape was called the lotus and women with bound feet walked in a swaying manner to preserve balance known as the Lotus Gait. Popular belief dictates the women who underwent this binding process were crippled and unable to walk but this is false. The fashion fell out of favor when foreign investors and missionaries convinced the rulers it was unnatural. Chinese people were divided over the definition of beauty and while some rebelled against foot binding, many still secretly undertook the practice. When the Communists came into power in 1949 they declared the practice illegal and this law still stands today.

Easter Island
Easter Island was once known as Rapa Nui to the Polynesian settlers who lived there. The Rapanui people are famous for their giant moai statues that dominate the landscape. The tallest moai stands over 30 feet tall and there is a partly finished moai that would have stood almost 70 feet tall. While the moai are thought to represent past chiefs or ancestors, their ultimate purpose remains unknown. The statues do give a glimpse into the settler’s images of beauty. Most of the statues were carved around 1100 CE and all of them display stretched ears. While it is arguable that this is an exaggeration like the long noses, the shapes of the ears correspond to the distinct form of stretched ears. A myth passed down among the islanders explains that the original Polynesian settlers had stretched ears and were known as the ‘Long Ears’. Stretched ears were common to these people so naturally they carved the moai to reflect this. Soon another group of settlers came to the island and they were known as the ‘Short Ears’. The ‘Long Ears’ enslaved them and forced them to create their moai statues. The ‘Short Ears’ were a larger population however and soon they revolted. During the regime change, the production of statues abruptly ceased.

Egypt
The fascinating civilization of ancient Egypt began more than 5000 years ago. The Egyptians dominated and changed the landscapes and civilizations around them until the rule of the pharaohs came to an end in 31 CE at the hands of the Roman Empire. The ancient Egyptians are not associated with body modification practices but they did exist. We know the Egyptians created eunuchs to serve in their palaces and temples. An unexplained form of body modification practiced by Egyptian royalty was navel piercing. Only members of the royal family were allowed this style of piercing and the purpose was almost certainly religious rather than decorative. Pierced ears were common in Egypt from the wealthy to the slaves. It is believed that only the royal males and certain priests were allowed to wear earrings, plugs or studs after puberty. We see evidence of stretched ears on statues and funerary masks. King Tutankhamen’s mask was molded to display his stretched ears. Some ancient Egyptian jewelry is quite thick and some form of ear stretching would have been needed to accommodate the more decorative pieces worn by the wealthy, elite and devoted.

Greece
Both male and females in ancient Greece pierced their ears. That is a known fact through archeological evidence. Other than earrings, there is not much to suggest the Greeks were too interested in personal body modification. The most common form of body modification was body building. The ancient Greeks idealized the human form and found beauty in the sculpted bodies of athletes. They did practice extreme cases of body modification but not for fashion. Usually this was practiced for commerce or punishment. In the ancient world, foreign slaves were seen as less than human. A common punishment was to remove the nose and ears of rebellious slaves. This practice was introduced to the Greeks from the wars against Persia. Castration was also introduced but only as punishment for slaves. Branding a slave’s forehead was a common practice. A symbol usually showed the slave’s purpose like miner or quarry worker.

Mayan Civilization
For almost 800 years the Maya were the masters of their world. Mayan cities reflected the culture of thousands of different societies brought together under this amazing Empire. Body modification to the Maya was not only for religious purposes. Like all great civilizations, they had enough leisure time to develop their own notions about fashion.

Human culture has always been fascinated with eyes. The Mayans found beauty in a slightly cross eyed stare. Babies had beads strung over their noses to encourage the muscles in the eye to turn inward. Another fashion started at infancy was the desire to possess an elongated skull. Portraits of Mayan gods usually depicted a long, cone shaped skull and this was the ideal. The sides of an infant’s head were bound to promote elongation.

The Mayans enjoyed all manner of lip, ear, septum, nose, cheek and other types of body piercing. Prominent men in Mayan society had their own fashion trends. Ornamental labrets created from materials like jade or gold were worn by the elite as symbols of their rank. Another form of body modification involved ear stretching with the use of counterweights. The most valuable materials to the Maya was not gold. For religious reasons, obsidian and especially jade, was far more valuable. Jade or obsidian carved ear decorations came with a counterweight that hung from a cord. Strung through the earlobe, this was a practical way to keep a large ornament stationary.

Mindanao (Philippines)
Mindanao Island is the eastern most island in the Philippines. Today most of the inhabitants are Muslim. Traces of their old religions can still be found in artwork and artifacts which seemed to point to a belief system that revolved around animism. Unfortunately much of their past has been lost and since the embrace of modern culture. Old records show the inhabitants once lived in separate tribes all over the island and practiced many different beliefs. Body modification was popular as well. One of the more popular forms of body modification centered around the belief that only animals should have white teeth. Many people dyed their teeth black or red. Some tribes had women who filed their teeth into elaborate shapes that resemble the teeth of sharks. This body modification helped them achieve a higher form of beauty that was believed unattainable without it.

Persian Empire
The Persian Empire was huge. They had absorbed the culture of the previous Assyrian Empire and were much influenced by ancient Egyptians. Body modification was a fact of life in the Empire. Eunuchs were created to serve in the palace. Their duties ranged from body guards to harem slaves. Eunuchs were believed to be able to focus on tasks better and also be completely loyal to the emperors since they could sire no dynasties of their own. History proved this false however as there are many cases of royalty dying at the hands of their eunuchs. Besides castration, body modification was also used in fashion. Wall carvings at Persepolis show pierced ears were standard for soldiers. Body piercing was also commonly used to adorn court slaves and servants with jewels.

In the wars against Greece, the Persians took prisoners from the cities they sacked as slaves. Later Greek expeditions, notably the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great, saw some of these captives returned. Many had undergone extreme forms of body modification. It was from these former prisoners the Greeks learned new forms of punishment and control for their own slave markets back home. The Persians were fascinated by Greek art, especially jewelry. These prisoners were quite valuable to the Persians. Goldsmiths and other jewelers were often heavily modified to keep them working. Facial mutilation was used to deter them from wanting to return to Greece. Since they only needed their hands to work, it was not unheard of to remove one foot to reduce mobility.

Roman Empire
The ancient city of Rome was the largest city in the world at one time. Like our modern day cities, Rome was a melting pot of many different cultures and ideas. Body modification was commonly practiced by all levels of society from slaves to Emperors. In fact, the Emperor Elagabalus had physicians researching ways to give him functioning female genitalia.

Fashion was taken from the conquered people and allies of the Empire and then made distinctly Roman. Pierced and stretched ears were a common sight in Rome. Expensive earrings were simply another way to display wealth and power. Julius Caesar was known to have pierced ears. In ancient Rome, stretched ears were not a journey of self exploration. The wealthy simply wore outrageously decorative earrings that were heavy. Besides ears, nipples were believed to have been pierced as well. Nipple piercing may have been similar to different toga styles. It was a fad that came and went. A more realistic theory about Roman nipple piercing is the idea may have come from the decorative, armored breastplates Roman officers wore. The shape of the armor is cast in the form of a bare torso with pierced nipples and rings. These nipple rings had a function though; the officer fastened his cloak to it. While there is scant evidence regarding nipple piercing, the fashion was thought to have been practiced mostly by men and originated from the ranks of the Roman military. Penises were also pierced and not just for sexual purposes. Piercing the head of the penis in slaves was an easy way to control breeding and behavior. A studded or bar shaped piercing attached to a lock would effectively stop sexual penetration. Popular slaves such as athletes, musicians, actors or pleasure slaves could be not only controlled using this method, but they could also be rented out for material gain.

BODY MODIFICATION PRACTICES TODAY

As body modification practices grow in popularity across the Western world, we find ourselves turning more and more to the tribal world for inspiration. There are many people all over the world who still practice body modification for a multitude of reasons including religion, vanity, spirituality and even to defile beauty. Some of the people in this section may no longer practice their traditional forms of body modification due to the encroaching modern world but have been included because they still have living practitioners among them.

AFRICA

Berber People
The Berber tribes once spread far and wide across North Africa. Now they are found west of the Nile valley in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The Berber tribes have long practiced nose piercing and still do so today. The size and value of a nose ring has historically been viewed as extension of personal wealth, influence and power. A nose ring is also a traditional wedding gift among the Berber people. Once it was a sort of dowry and it a great deal of significance was placed on choosing the perfect ring. Not only did the ring demonstrate the wealth of the groom but if the marriage failed, the bride got to keep the ring. The tradition of nose rings is still practiced among the Berber people but pressure from various factions of Islam are trying to cease this cultural practice.

Lobi Tribe
The Lobi Tribe exists in Ghana of northwest Africa. The Lobi people are considered shy and reclusive which may explain how they have held onto much of their heritage. To the Lobi, the real world and the spiritual world are the same thing. Besides daily ancestor worship, many Lobi tribesmen believe that the various spirits of nature or thila are all around them. They worship many fetishes and are known for their beautiful wood carvings that are often created to pay homage to the thila. The older generations of Lobi show many signs of body modifications. Stretched ears and lips are common though only clay lip plugs are worn publicly. Unlike other African tribes, the Lobi wear lip plugs instead of plates. Many older Lobi women display plugs with diameters over three inches, usually in both lips.

Makonde
The Makonde are an ethnic group of people who reside in scattered settlements throughout northern Mozambique and southeast Tanzania. They are one of the few people in Africa to successfully drive off Arab slavers and they resisted colonial powers until the 20th century. While their culture has remained virtually intact they are slowing adapting to Western ways. The facial tattoos which were once needed before marriage have become less common. Some pockets of Makonde settlements still have women proudly wearing the traditional lip plug or ndonya, on their upper lip. These plugs are made of stone and some have a carved loop which can be used as a handle. Ancestor worship is a large part of the Makonde religious belief system. Interestingly enough, in the other settlements where the women have ceased this form of body modification, they still create religious carvings that depict females proudly displaying their ndonyas.

Mursi Tribe
The Mursi tribe or Murzu, lead a nomadic life as cattle herders across some of the most isolated lands in Ethiopia. In the past they ranged much further than today but due to political climates and border disputes they are more contained near the border of Sudan. The Mursi women are known in the world of body modification for the large plates they wear in their lower lips. The plates are a coming of age symbol represent vitality and sexual maturity. The lip stretching can begin at around age 15 or at least one year before her wedding ceremony. The piercing is traditionally done with bone. The initial hole is less than an inch in diameter and stretched with a wooden peg. After the piercing heals, the process is repeated until a hole measuring around 3 inches in diameter is formed. Now the plate can be inserted. Some Mursi women have been known to wear plates that are over 6 inches in diameter.

Ndebele Tribe
The Ndebele people are an offshoot of the Zulu tribes. In the 1800s, two warring brothers spilt the tribe into a northern and southern division. The southern Ndebele are adopting the customs of their Sotho (a Bantu language) speaking neighbors but both tribes still remain culturally Ndebele. In the not so distant past, all Ndebele women practiced the art of neck modification. Copper and bronze rings were worn around the neck, arms and legs. The first neck ring symbolized her loyalty to her husband and was put on when their home was built. Rings after that symbolized wealth. The wives of rich men were proud of their elongated body modifications and wore the rings until death. Today, very few women continue this tradition as the tribes blend into the cultures around them. Usually only older women can be found with copper neck rings but an offshoot of the practice is practiced among the younger generations. Large ropes of beads wrapped around the neck are now fashionable.

Sara Kaba Tribe
The Sara Kaba tribes are located across central Africa but mostly in Chad. Body modification became standard practice to the females in the tribe due to foreign incursions and slave raids. For several centuries, Arab slave raiders routinely swept through the lands in search of new victims. The women of the Sara Kaba tribe were reportedly in demand because the Arabs found the lips of the women especially beautiful. To change the minds of the slavers, Sara Kaba parents started to pierce both lips for stretching purposes on female children. Sometimes the top four teeth were removed to accommodate the larger plates. Unlike many other African tribes that wear labrets, the Sara Kaba are one of the few that wear two plates at the same time. Today mostly the female tribal elders are known to display the double lip plates. It has also been reported that some members of the tribe are engaging in double lip plate body modifications to promote tourism.

ASIA

The Apatani Tribe (India)
The Apatani tribe live in northeast India deep within the Ziro valley. The body modification practiced by these people was not to beautify but rather to disfigure. The women of the Apanti tribes were fabled to be the most beautiful in the valley. Tribal raids for wives and slaves saw their population at risk and they took extreme methods to protect their people. The stretching the nostrils to accommodate nose plugs began at an early age. The desired diameter was between 1 and 2 inches to produce an exaggerated flare of the nostrils. The materials used to make nose plugs was generally stone or clay but this changed over time to even include coins. While many women still wear the traditional nose plugs, the practice is widely discontinued among the youth.

Hindustan (India)
The traditional body modifications for Hindu women can include pierced ears, septum and nose. Most piercing jewelry is made of gold and is sometimes decorated with precious stones or pearls. A nose stud is called Phul while the nose ring is called Nath. Most nasal piercing is done on the left nostril but in some regions both sides are pierced. The left side is the most common side to be pierced in India because of the traditional medical beliefs (called ayurveda) of the people. The left side opens up a channel to release the energy associated with childbirth and menstrual pain.

There are also forms of ritual piercing that are intended to cause pain or offer blood. Some of the temples devoted to Shiva or the goddess Maha Mariamman perform ceremonies that have devotees piercing their tongues with iron tridents to cleanse the soul. A more extreme practice known as Thookkam takes a devotee that has fasted for 41 days and suspends him high above the ground from hooks that are inserted into his back. The drops of blood are meant to pacify the goddess Kali. This ritual was officially banned in 2004 by Indian courts but is still practiced.

Stretched ears are a common sight in India but not due to any beliefs. The heavy, gold jewelry simply stretches the ears over time. In fact, there are many statues of Buddha and other bodhisattvas that depict stretched ears. The empty loops represent that they have cast off their previous lives of luxury.

AUSTRALIA

Australian Aboriginal People
The Australian Aboriginal people comprise of more than 400 separate tribes with different dialects, languages and beliefs. In this vast group of people there are many forms of body modification practices. Many Aboriginal shamans pierce their tongues to draw blood. This allows them to draw evil magic out of a patient’s body.
Some Aboriginal tribes prefer a flatter nose for beauty. Using piercing methods, they slowly stretch away portions of the septum with bone and wood. Besides circumcision rites, septum piercing is a traditional way for a child to become a man. The male child at 8 or 9 years of age would move to the unmarried men’s camp and learn various portions of the religion from an uncle or other elder male. At dawn his septum would be pierced with a kangaroo bone. The next day the bone was removed and a larger turkey bone replaced it. In some regions, two to four of the male child’s teeth would be removed to symbolize the end of his childhood. After these rituals, the child would go on a circular journey with the uncle or other elder to trace the Dreamtime or spiritual history of the tribal ancestors.

NORTH AMERICA

The Arapaho, Cheyenne, Crow, Sioux, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibway, Sarasi, Omaha, Ponca, Ute, Shoshone, Kiowa, and Blackfoot Tribes
Many Native American Indian body modification practices came from Mexican and European influences. Pierced noses and ears may have been common in some tribes but wearing decorative jewelry such as the famous turquoise pieces of the Navajo came in the 1800s when the Spanish taught them silversmithing. One distinct style of body modification many tribes did practice was ritual piercing. Ritual piercing was a form of self sacrifice dedicated to the gods during the Sun Dance. The Sun Dance, also known as the Rain Dance or the Thirst Dance, is practiced by many tribes during summer solstice. It celebrates the circle of life and shows that through death comes rebirth. The ceremony can last from 4 to 8 days and includes fasting, drumming, chanting and in some cases, piercing. Modern day tribal practices are usually kept private but old anthropology records show warriors would pierce their chests with wooden spikes in a religious frenzy and then would calmly allow themselves to be tethered to a pole. Rope was tied to the spikes and the warrior would face the sun and lean back to stretch the piercing. The blood and sometimes flesh that was lost in the ritual was offered to spirits of the dance.

Inuit, Yupik and Aleut Tribes
Eskimo is a broad term covers the three main tribes; the Inuit who ranged through northern Canada, the Yupik tribe who called western Alaska home and the Aleut who settled the Aleutian Islands. These tribes were all practitioners of shamanism and found beauty in body modification. While the times are changing these people, facial tattoos can still be found on many of the elders. A tribal resurgence has influenced some of the younger generations to practice this again. The Inuit once favored the use of a labret or tootuk, to demonstrate prestige. Larger tootuks meant more status. The piercing tool and plugs used for stretching were made of ivory. When the hole was stretched to about half an inch, the labrets are inserted. These labrets were made of a variety of whatever materials were available. There are ones made from glass obtained from ships, gravel, ivory, bone, porcelain and agate. The most curious material and also one of the most valuable to the people, was turquoise. It is unknown how these tribes obtained this material but many generations have passed it down.

SOUTH AMERICA

Aimorés or Botocudo
The Aimorés or Botocudo people of eastern Brazil are now found mostly on reservations though a few villages still survive. They were once the dominant group that called the area surrounding the headwaters of the Rio Doce their territory until Portuguese colonists found diamond deposits there. Soon the tribes were decimated by warfare, slavery and disease. Botocudo is a Portuguese name and Aimorés is a name they sometimes use to refer to themselves. Both sexes of the Aimorés people can practice lip and ear stretching modifications. The initial piercing is made from a wooden spike carved from the barriguda tree which is a conspicuous bottle shaped tree that grows in the region and is believed to be part of the spiritual world. As the hole widens through the use of wooden plugs, the Aimorés start to prepare the tembeitera or wooden plates they insert in their lower lips and ears. The tembeitera is also carved from the barriguda tree. In the elder males of the Aimorés people the lip piercing can be larger than four inches and some ear lobes stretch almost to the shoulders.

Huaorani Indians
Some of the Huaorani people still exist as hunter gathers in the eastern rainforests of Ecuador. Unfortunately for these people, hundreds of miles of oil pipes and pump stations have encroached upon their lands. Any Huaorani older than 30 has stretched ears. Ears were pierced at an early age with wooden spines from a tree. Both men and women practice this custom. It is more common to see women wearing the wooden ear plugs which are decorated with feathers in public than the men. It is not clear if this is a modern day change or if male ear plugs are only worn for ceremonies. As hunters who prowl the forest with blowguns and spears, the males may prefer unobstructed hearing. Older males with more status in the community have larger stretched ears than others suggesting that certain plugs may only be worn by certain members. Sadly this custom is not being passed to the newer generations who live in the shadow of the oil companies and prefer Nike t-shirts over balsa wood ear plugs.

Matis Indians
The Matis people live in the Yavarí valley in the Amazon rainforest near the borders of Peru and Brazil. Since contact with the Western world, diseases have drastically reduced their numbers. There are reportedly less than 300 survivors spread over two tiny villages. The tribes live off the land as hunters but also practice some agriculture. The Matis are well known for their forms of body modification. In the Western world they are known as the Jaguar People because of the body modifications they employ to alter their facial appearances. The jaguar is a superb rainforest predator and known for its relentless tracking abilities and stealth. Whether the ancestors of the Matis people sought to channel this creature’s energy or if it is an ancient remnant from one of the Mesoamerican jaguar cults is unknown. The Matis use facial tattoos to appear more jaguar-like. They pierce their noses 4 – 6 times and use palm spines from an Oenocarpus bataua palm (better known for it’s chocolate tasting fruit than nose spikes) as whiskers. The Matis are also practitioners septum piercing and ear stretching. Sometimes the piercing areas are used to display more whiskers for the jaguar personas but it more usual to see the rib bone of a small animal in the septum. When hunting, the Matis have special ear plugs that are wooden dowels with river shells radiating outwards. Many would logically see this as a symbol for better hearing but the concept of hearing to the Matis is much more complex. These ear plugs help the hunters perceive the forest better in ways that are hard to understand in the West. To the Matis, the forest is a living, breathing entity. The sounds of rustling animals or singing birds are one type noise but they also believe if you know how to listen, the forest will tell you it’s secrets. This type of communication is based in the spiritual world and it is believed to reveal anything from the location of food to activities of enemies.

Matsés Indians
The Matsés people live in the Amazon rainforest near the borders of Brazil and Peru. The tribal name of Matsés is their word for ‘people’ and it is not clear if in the past they had another name for themselves. The Matsés people are sometimes confused with the Matis tribes. The cultural practices are similar and they use similar dialects. The styles of body modification are also similar yet remarkably different in design. Both people use facial tattoos to appear more jaguar-like. The lines are more pronounced in the Matsés culture and many of the patterns that surround the mouth and ears are geometric. Since the exposure of the modern world, the Matsés males have stopped practicing most forms of body modification. Now only the women adorn themselves with palm spike whiskers. In the past, the males also practiced this display of facial piercing but the palm spikes were only worn on the upper lip.

Rikbaktsa
The Rikbaktsa are a hunting tribe that exist in the Mato Grosso region of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil. The Portuguese settlers in the area called them Orelhas de Pau which means ‘Wood Ears’ because the males wear wooden discs in their ears to symbolize their status as hunters. Rikbaktsa males are not considered men until they go through a ritual piercing during their coming of age ceremony. The exact age is unknown because many tribes in the Amazon have only recently adopted our system of counting years. It is believed to be around 12 or 13. At this age they move up in the social hierarchy from small game hunters to big game hunters. This is an important ceremony because when the ears are pierced with the wood from the forest, the child learns their adult name and is now eligible for marriage. Though not verified, this tradition may have been halted. With less than a 1000 people left, the tribe seems to be moving towards modernization. Recently it has been reported that ear stretching is no longer allowed because of missionary influences.

The Suyá
The Suyá people are settled near the source of the Xingu River in Brazil. Body modification practices are tied to the spiritual world they coexist with. Hunters practice ear stretching from an early age and insert wooden loops inside the ear lobes to hear the forest’s voice. These loops can be 1-2inches in diameter. After marriage, males pierce their lower lip with a wooden spike to start stretching. As the marriage grows, so does the disc. The labret is carved from a cross section of palm wood and died red from an annatto plant. The exact cultural significance of this lip plate is unknown but it is believed to be used to stay in contact with their ancestors and spirits. Our way of counting age is still a new concept for the Suyá people but a married man with grandchildren displays a labret over 3 inches in diameter. Females are allowed to wear labrets only when their husbands die. The Suyá are a musical tribe and one of their songs of origin states the first labrets were taken from a conquered tribe.

Yanomami tribe
The Yanomami people live in the Amazon basin in both Venezuela and Brazil. This tribe is considered one if the most primitive tribes in the modern world. They exist as nomadic hunter gathers but also keep gardens and often congregate at large seasonal houses for ceremonies. Facial piercing begins in the early childhoods of both sexes. Different types if slender wooden slivers, palm spikes and plants stalk are displayed from septum, cheeks, chin and lips. The primary reason for these body modifications is decorative but it has been noted they wear different styles of piercing for different activities and ceremonies. These insertions sometimes have burnt or dyed tips and can be decorated with feathers.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

Asmat tribe
The Asmat people are spread over the western side of the island of New Guinea in Indonesia and are well known for their woodcarvings. These people were left alone until middle of the 20th century because of their reputation as cannibals and headhunters. Regular contact with the outside world was infrequent until the 1950s. The warrior side of this tribe influences their choices of body modifications. The fearsome aspect of animals such as wild pigs were worshipped to give a warrior courage. Septum stretching is one aspect of this. The bones and tusks of wild pigs are worn in the stretched piercing. Septum stretching is falling out of favor among the younger generations but is still practiced. Some warriors from the older generations display rather large holes in their septum. It was once believed that power could be gained from wearing the tibia bone of a slain enemy.

Hmong people
The Hmong people originated in China but their customs and culture marked them as outsiders. They fled south to Burma (Myanmar), Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam in the 18th century. Records show that ear stretching was popular in Hmong culture for both sexes. They were renowned for the large tunnels in their ears. The men used ivory plugs and the women wore decorative wooden plates. As the Hmong people spread into new lands and cultures, the practice changed. Ear stretching was removed in some Hmong societies but continued in others with new cultural influences. Women now prefer silver tunnels over the wooden plates and infants get a smaller gauge pierce designed for earrings rather than a stretching plug.

Kayan People
The Kayan people live in Myanmar (formerly Burma) near the borders of Thailand. Kayan women have pierced ears and some still practice ear stretching to adorn themselves with brass or silver tunnel plugs. They are best known for their form of body modification that gives the illusion of an elongated neck. At an early age, brass rings are placed on a girl’s neck and more are added over time. The brass rings slowly compress the collar bone, in essence crushing it. This gives the illusion of an elongated neck. Scholars offer many reasons for this modification including it was a way to escape slavery or homage to the Kayan connection with dragons. The Kayan people say it is a cultural tradition. One sad aspect of this body modification came after many Kayan people fled into Thailand to escape Burmese persecution. Housed in refugee camps that they cannot leave, Kayan females are encouraged to keep the tradition alive. Tourists pay a fee to come inside the camps and meet the ‘Giraffe Women’ of Burma

Western Culture
The West is a geographical term that incorporates North America, Western Europe, Australia, Israel and New Zealand.

Body modification practices from all over the world, past and present, are being introduced into the cultures of the West. The new medium to communicate these ideas is the internet. People can learn new and forgotten practices of body modification from other enthusiasts all over the world. The reasons behind body modifications in the West is largely curiosity, spiritual exploration and fashion. Religion does not play a major role like it did in past societies or in other contemporary cultures.

While all Western cultures practiced forms body modification, the USA is recognized as spreading the fashion of body piercing through the medium of popular culture. Long considered an effeminate practice in Western culture, USA males started piercing their left ears in the early 1980s. The left ear symbolized the male was heterosexual. As time passed, it became socially acceptable for males to pierce both ears. This new trend prompted females to start piercing their ears multiple times. Soon nose rings, studs, eyebrow, navel and lip piercing found their way into Western culture.

Ear, nose, navel and eyebrow piercing is socially and fashionably acceptable in the West. But as more people get body modifications, the trends evolve. Taking a page from our tribal friends across the world, ear and septum stretching are becoming more recognizable forms of contemporary body modification. Extreme forms that are not so socially acceptable are also appearing. For example, a nullo is a man who has castrated himself. As the styles of body modification are being explored, there will be cultural clashes of what is normal versus what is taboo.

Breast enlargements, liposuction, nose jobs and laser eye surgery are just a few forms of body modification that are currently socially accepted. Whether our culture realizes it or not, we are extreme practitioners of body modification and some even argue that this will be the next step in our human evolution. The people who split their tongues with lasers or surgically reshape their ears may be the next pioneers. The future of our humanity is tied to our technology and innovation. Body modification may transform from a cultural practice to a necessary reality because of war, pestilence and climate change. This is actually not so different from the primitive viewpoint that depends upon body modification to exist in the spiritual world.